Research on Malaria in Moyale District Essay Example for Free

Research on Malaria in Moyale District Essay The term `Malaria originates from Medieval Italian Mala aria which mean â€Å"bad air†; and the disease was formerly called Ague or Marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland, (Watkins, 2001). Scientific studies on Malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran a French army doctor working in the military hospital of Constantine in Algeria observed malaria plasmodium parasites inside the red blood cell of people suffering from Malaria. Documentation of report on discovery of origin of Malaria, one of the deadliest diseases of humanity shows that Chimpanzees, native to equatorial Africa have been identified as the original source of the parasite that likely moved from them to humans via mosquitoes. Wolfe, (2009) identified several parasites from Chimpanzee that show Malarial jumped from animal to human. Malaria is transmitted by Anopheline mosquitoes the number and type of which determine the extent of transmission in a given area. The plasmodium falciparum accounts for the majority of infections and is most lethal. Transmission is affected by climate and geography and often coincides with the rainy season. In WHO/UNICEF, (2005) report malaria is one of the most devastating global public health problems with more than one million deaths and approximately 300-500 million cases of malaria annually. WHO, (2010) report, Malaria is by far the world’s worse tropical parasitic disease, and kills more people than any other communicable disease. Several studies observed that malaria kills more than 3,000 children daily and is the single most important factor for mortality among children under the age of five. Additionally, an estimated 25 million pregnant women are at risk of malaria. Malaria is endemic in a total of 101 countries and territories 45 countries in WHO’s African region, 21 in WHO’s American region, 4 in WHO’s European region, 14 in WHO’s Eastern Mediterrarian Region, 8 In WHO’s South – East Asia region, and 9 in WHO’s Western Pacific region, (report from global health council on impact of infectious diseases. ) WHO, (2007) report has shown that malaria has reached epidemic proportions in many regions of the world and continues to spread unchecked. In many regions of developing countries malaria exacts an enormous toll in lives, medical costs, and in days of labor lost. According to Roll-Back Malaria (RBM), over 40 per cent of the World’s children live in malaria-endemic countries and 107 countries and territories are at risk of malaria transmission. Malaria causes 24 percent of under-five deaths in Equatorial Guinea (UNICEF 2008). Malaria is preventable, if adequate resources are invested in prevention. About 98 percent of Equatorial Guineans live in areas with endemic risk of malaria but only one percent of children under five sleeps under insecticide-treated nets. This is far fewer than in other Countries with similar malaria risk. This suggests inadequate efforts to prevent malaria that would contribute to the realization of the right to health of both children and adults. Children under the age of five, pregnant women, and people living with HIV and AIDS are at highest risk for developing clinical malaria. More than 80 per cent of these cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa. WHO/RBM, (2004). Malaria is a primary cause of poverty, putting additional burdens on health systems and costing Africa an estimated 12 billion USDs in lost production every year. The spread of the disease is fuelled by several factors: climate change, increasing population mobility, more frequent international transport, emergence of multi drug-resistant strains, and military and economic deterioration. Abuja summit in Nigeria in the year 2000, 44 African leaders reaffirmed their commitment to roll back malaria and set interim target for Africa. They challenged other world leaders to join them in recognizing the importance of tackling malaria as a disease of poverty. Following the Abuja summit, Africa Malaria Day was declared as a day to celebrate on malaria and a subsequent UN resolution declared 2001-2010. Roll Back Malaria, especially in Africa, giving prominence to Malaria in United Nations Millennium Development Goals. The Africa Malaria report, released in the year 2003/Nairobi/Geneva/New York by the World Health Organization (WHO 2005), and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), said the death toll from malaria remains outrageously high-with a child dying in every 30 seconds. The report gives an African situation for the struggle against the diseases and highlights the urgent need to make effective anti-malarial treatment available to most at risk. â€Å"The roll back Malaria initiatives has made considerable progress since it was launched in 1998, but we need to increase to combat a devastating disease which is holding back the development of many African countries,† states Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland, Director-General of WHO. Nationally Malaria has been a serious public health problem in most Districts of Kenya and the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Kenya. With more than 70% of the Kenya’s population living in areas where malaria is transmitted, Malaria is responsible for approximately 30% of out-patient visits (requiring more than eight million out-patient treatments each year), and 19% of all hospital admissions. At least 14,000 children are hospitalized annually for malaria, and there are an estimated 34,000 deaths among children under-five each year. Annually, an estimated six thousand pregnant women suffer from malaria-associated anemia, and four thousand babies are born with low birth weight as a result of maternal anemia, report from government health facility in 2007. Economically, it is estimated that 170 million working days are lost each year because of malaria illness. Culture and poor access to health facilities lead to increase in cases of malaria. The main thing peculiar with children under 5 years is that many cannot sleep under net due to incapability of their parent especially in rural areas, because of the few wages they hardly get from their casual work. Most children again play outside in the grasses or near drainage where mosquito’s breeds thus are exposed to mosquito bites. In local situation Malaria is the highest causes death of many people in the region of Moyale and districts of North Eastern province bordering Moyale district from east. Malaria claims the life of 1,500 in the year 1998 and out of that 45 death in Wajir district (Daily Nation, Thursday, February 1998). Sololo Mission Hospital reported the admission of 67 people. Out of 67people, 25 children of less than five years were reported cases of malaria (SMH/1999). 1. 2 problem articulation/ statement: Malaria is World’s most important parasite infectious disease. Over 2 billion people are at risk between 300 and 500 million episodes and over 1 million deaths annually, WHO, (2005). Over 90% of malaria burden are in sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is one of the planets deadliest diseases and one of the leading causes of sickness and death in the developing world. Documentation also show that Malaria affect child cognitive, physical development and leads to poor school attendance. Malaria also leads to malnutrition and anemic condition in children. More so it also affects adult’s ability to make a living and care for their families. At country level malaria affects trade, tourism and foreign direct investment and there is significant correlation between malaria and poverty. An average GDP in malaria’s countries is five times lower than in non-malaria’s countries 1. 3 Objectives of the study To establish factors that lead to high prevalence of Malaria in children under five years in Obbu Division, Moyale District. 1. 4 Specific objectives: 1. To determine socio-demographic factors contributing to Malaria prevalence among the under five children in Obbu division. 2. To establish the level of knowledge on Malaria, among caregivers of children under five in Obbu Division. . 5 Research questions 1. What are the main factors contributing to high prevalence of Malaria among the under five children in Obbu division? 2. What is the knowledge level of care givers of children under five years about the risk factors of late treatment and prevention of Malaria? 3. To what extent the level of knowledge on Malari a, among caregivers of children under five in Obbu Division? 1. 6. Hypothesis/assumption There were no factors that contribute to prevalence of malaria in children less than five years in Obbu Division of Solol District 1. 7 Justification of the study. Malaria outbreak in mid July 2012, number of cases diagnosed were 82, and 8 out of 10 reported death were children under five (Malaria/SMH/ 20012/3). The prevalence was precipitated by illiteracy, migration lifestyle of pastoralists’ community and uncontrolled border intermingling and refugees from neighboring countries like Ethiopia and Somali as revealed by the study of Diseases Outbreak Management Unit-DOMU (2002). Socio demographic factors and knowledge about the diseases control and prevention attracted a lot of concern that call for research in these factors. Obbu division has few documentation of the study, so this will be helpful to academia as it will be used as document of references for a researcher in the same area of study. The government or other stakeholders will benefit from the findings and may take intervention measures for instance the Ministry of public health to educate people on the better prevention methods. The findings of the study will be used by people of the study area to plan for the prevention of the malaria, since it is preventable at every household. 1. 8 Scope of the study To investigate main factors contributing to high prevalence of Malaria among children less than five years of age in Obbu division of Moyale district. . 1. 9 Limitations 1. Data collection during interview was difficult due to migration of the population but the settlement around the centre of each four location was targeted. 2. Cost of getting trained research assistant was challenging. 3. The study was limited to factors contributing to prevalence of malaria in children less than five years of age. 2. 0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1. 0 Origin of malaria. The history of malaria replete with a number of theories about its aetiology, the earliest theory was the Miasmatic. This theory postulated that swamp air contained chemicals which had been freed from rotting wood. This air was what was responsible for causing malaria (Ransford 1983). It was because of this theory that double storey buildings were preferred during the early days of the colonial period as it was believed that miasma did not rise above ground level (Ransford 1983) and that the miasma was thought to spread horizontally (King and King 1992). Ransford and Friedson claim that Africans were the ones who first recognized the link between mosquitoes and malaria (Ransford 1983; Friedson 1996) and in the West it was only known later through the pioneering works of Patrick Mason, Ronald Ross, Grassi and others around the 1890s. 2. 1. 1 Prevalence of Malaria. There are 300-500 million clinical cases of Malaria each year resulting in 1. 5 to 2. 7 million deaths (WHO, 2005). Global viral forecasting initiative and standard university, made the discovery published in the Aug. 2009 proceedings of the National academy of sciences Wolfe, (2009). Malaria in most countries of Western Pacific and Regional Organizations has significantly declined in the period 1992 to 2000. There is widespread consensus that the change to Artemisinin Based Combination (ACT) in Vietnam was a significant factor in the 98% drop in malaria mortality between 1992 and 2002. The geographical area affected by malaria has shrunk considerably over the past 50 years, but control is becoming more difficult and gains are being eroded. Increased risk of the disease is linked with changes in land use linked to activities like road building, mining, logging and Agricultural and irrigation projects, particularly in â€Å"frontier† areas like the rain forests. Other causes of its spread include global climatic change, disintegration of health services, armed conflicts and mass movements of refugees. According to citation from the August 97 issue of the American magazine the Atlantic Monthly entitled â€Å"Resurgence of a Deadly Disease† by Ellen Rippel Shell.

Investigating The Companies Of Tesco And Oxfam Business Essay

Investigating The Companies Of Tesco And Oxfam Business Essay Tesco is Britains largest retailer, and it is the third largest grocery retailer in the world. Tesco is a profit making business which started out by selling groceries, but now they sell a whole variety of products from tea bags all the way up to televisions. The purpose of Tesco is to please every customer and keep them loyal for a life time, as this saying says on their website. Our Core Purpose is to create value for customers to earn their lifetime loyalty. The aims and objectives of Tescos are; To capitalize on sales Develop and maintain the number one retail business in the UK. To outperform rivals and remain the market leader. Highest aim of Tesco is to maximize revenue. To supply goods/services that is low-priced and affordable to consumers or the public Tesco would want to expand their business buy making new green buildings for their stores to keep their carbon footprint down. By doing this it would appeal to wider customer bases who believe in environmentally friendly buildings are to be built to sustain global warming. On the other hand Oxfam is a charity organization, which was formed in 1995 by a group of independent non-governmental organizations. Their objectives are to work together for a superior effect on the global stage to reduce poverty and injustice. Oxfam is a world front-runner in the delivery of emergency aid; Oxfam also implants long term development programs in weak societies. Also Oxfam help people to campaign with people and organizations for things such as; Ending unfair trade Demand better health and education services for all. The aims and objectives of Oxfam would be; Support third world nations in any way they can. Get rid of poverty, distress and suffering. Educate people about natural disasters and the effect this has on poverty. To campaign for a fair-minded world. Encourage western nations to aid poorer third world countries. Oxfams main concern would be the donation of food to relieve famine, over the years Oxfam has developed plans to fight the causes of famine. In addition to food and medication Oxfam also offers tools to allow people to become self-sufficient. Ownership Tesco is a Private Limited Company or Plc., it is owned by several people or thousands of people. The reason Tesco is a Plc. is because of the sheer size of the business, it is huge. Due to its size it would be tough to raise sufficient funds for Tesco if it was owned by a sole trader or by partners whereas in a Plc., the company is owned by shareholders who fund the company. This happens by the people buying shares in the company and becoming shareholders. Sometimes this may seem more appealing to people who are investing because they have the bonus of limited liability. Limited liability is where if the business goes bankrupt then you only lose the money that you invested. Unlimited liability relates to soul traders and partnerships if one of these were to go bankrupt then they could lose all their personal assets over it and the money they put into it. Stakeholders influence the purpose of Tesco because if it werent for the investors then the business wouldnt be able to run. The investors invest their own money to better the business and receive a profit. This is how the following could influence the organization; Customers Customers would want to be treated equally and with loyalty or they would go elsewhere, Tesco could lose customers. Employees Employees want better pay or theyll treat the customers in a poor manner so this would mean the customers would go elsewhere. Shareholders Shareholders invest their own money into the business and want great returns or the share values would decrease in value. Pressure groups Pressure groups could stop the business from opening stores in small communities, which would affect many small businesses. Trade unions Trade unions want staff to be treated fairly, equally and with respect. Also to be paid reasonable wages irrespective of age, race or gender. Suppliers Suppliers want fairness in business trading or would give the company a bad reputation. Government Government want their taxes paid, also to reduce unemployment in the local areas. Local community the community could protest against Tesco or boycott the business, if they damage the local environment or wildlife. Oxfam is a charity so they wont be owned by anybody, but there will be paid staff and a CEO. The CEO would deal with all the staff and media, but all the choices would be made by a panel of directors. The panel of directors would be chosen by the individuals who pay (donors/associates). The directors have the duty to follow their members or associates desires and do what they aim or set out to do. I.e. help third world countries or provide health and education to the poor. For Oxfam the stakeholder which would be the panel of directors would influence the organization because, if they were not to listen to their members/donors thoughts then they could make the wrong decisions for the organization and this could possibly put the organization out of business. I.e. if the directors were to ignore their members then no one would support Oxfam and could damage the business. This is how the following could influence the organization; Customers Customers want to be treated fair and equal or they could go to another rival charity. Employees Employees could be working voluntary or on a wage but either way they would want to be treated respectively, regardless of age, race or gender. Shareholders Shareholders within Oxfam would be the directors. They would want whats best for the business because it is a charity and it isnt a profit making business. Pressure groups Pressure groups could stop Oxfam from using plastic bags for their organization as it is not very economical. Trade unions Trade unions want staff to be treated fairly, equally and with respect. Also to be paid reasonable wages irrespective of age, race or gender. Suppliers Suppliers could provide free clothing to the charity but they could be in bad condition and this could affect how the charity would sell them. Government Government want their taxes paid. Local community the community could protest against Oxfam for not asking from clothes around the community instead of importing them from abroad. Tescos Organization chart As you can see Tescos organization chart is a hierarchical structure and a complex structure because Tesco have many levels of hierarchy and many leaders of certain departments. This means or shows that the power of owning the business is spread out. I.E. the people at the top of the chart (Chairman) and people at the bottom of the chart (employees) can make decisions about what happens within the business. Also each store in the Tesco series of supermarkets has a store manager who makes decisions regarding the store he/she is managing. Then all the managers in the region or area report the information to their regional manager. Tesco has a distributed organizational structure and the advantages of these are; Senior managers can concentrate on the most crucial decisions. Decision making powers held by the employees, may motivate them and increase their work ethic. Responses to challenges and alterations are much quicker in a distributed organizational structure. The span control Tescos has many leaders and people as heads of certain departments. This makes it easier for them to manage and control their employees and staff. Tescos have divided the responsibilities for leaders to look after certain amount of people. Oxfam Organization chart Oxfams organizational structure is based on just making enough money to cover costs. As you can see In the chart above everyone is working together to achieve a goal. Oxfam doesnt have many head of departments as Tesco, because they have teams based at different places around world and all work together. Directors The panel of directors would make the choices for the charity and take on board the views of the members/associates. Finance the finance department would look at the records of Oxfam, and provide the directors with information that they can use for future decision making. i.e., the cost of donating charity to the remote places in the world. But the directors would need to be continually conscious of their financial state, or could harm the business in future without knowing so. Staff and volunteers staff and volunteers could keep the charities income raising by selling the products within the store, and working as hard as possible for the business. Fundraising and supporter making decision Fundraising is key for Oxfam to survive because; it relies on people providing money so they could help needy people around the globe. Oxfam also take into account their donators and supporters views to better their services. International aid this is where Oxfam supports and helps people all over the world. They do this only by the money they are provided with from certain people and organizations. Span control Oxfam has many teams around the world that manage certain amount of employees/volunteers. So the employees are supervised and get their work done effectively. Style of Organizations The style of Tescos organization is very organized and very direct. Their aim is to please the consumer/customer as best they can. But their main purpose would be; To make money and capitalize, if it doesnt do that, it cant exist. Tesco is a major retailer in grocery and all-purpose retailing. To provide excellent quality goods and services to their customers Tesco mission Creating value for customers, to earn their lifetime loyalty. Tesco values Tescos fundamental purpose is to create value for consumers to earn their lifetime loyalty. The supermarkets success relies on their customers, i.e. if the customers like what Tesco are offering and doing then they are more likely to come back and shop with them again. To understand customers Be first to meet their requirements Act responsibly for the surrounding communities To work as a team Tesco objectives and Strategic aims to capitalize on sales Grow and maintain number 1 retailer in the UK To outshine and outperform competitors They would want to be able to keep their carbon foot prints down by making energy efficient buildings. Also to achieve specific targets that the business wants to achieve, like if they wanted to make a certain amount of profit a year they would have to change or adopt a business plan to achieve their goal. SMART Specific make a certain amount of profit a year Measurable Within a year Achievable Very possible to reach the target Realistic positively realistic Time specific it would be achieved within a period of a year Strategic plans allow a business to achieve its Purposes/objectives; they are based on whats going on during the current marketplace. So Tesco must do its research to find out lots of information about its customers, sales, competitors, market shares etc. Tesco strategic process making their shopping spree as relaxed as possible continually seeking to reduce their prices to help you spend less offering the convenience of either large or small stores bringing simplicity and value to complicated markets Oxfams organization is more based on working together internationally to achieve greater impact by our collective efforts. Also to work mostly through local responsible organizations, pursuing to strengthen their authorization. Oxfam mission and values are to; Further Oxfams common goals Promote, assist and co-ordinate collaboration among the Oxfams where this will result in a greater impact of the sum total of their joint efforts Protect the Oxfam name and enhance its standing. http://www.oxfam.org/en/about/what/mission Strategic aims and objectives aim to help the poor in the developing countries and to try and make a change in a persons life. To address structural causes of poverty and related injustice Help people directly where capacity is inadequate or unsuitable for Oxfam purposes To have peace and substantial arm reduced for development SMART objective Specific To reduce poverty and hunger for the poor Measurable within 10 years Achievable with hard and dedication yes Realistic with hard and dedication yes Time specific within 10 years of starting development in poorer countries M1 The points of views from different stakeholders would vary because they would have different opinions on certain topics. For example the customers who hold a stake in Tescos could want cheaper prices for customers, but on the other hand store managers could go against lowering prices as this could lead to not making enough profit. Or they could have to sell more products to break even. Customers customers points of views or opinion if they were to effect Tesco strategic aims and objectives would be about the service they receive. As a customer you would want to receive the highest level of customer service from such a big store like Tesco. I would think that most of Tesco strategic aims are based around or on their customers feedback, like if they wanted to expand into other areas of business, like selling hardware and home furniture they would have to see if customers were interested and would they actually buy from them. We are used to seeing Tesco in all places as they are looking to expand and dominate their competitors. This would be good for customers because Tesco would expand and open large stores giving jobs and services to customers and local people. Oxfam customers The customers of Oxfam would expect Oxfam to claim more aid etc, to meet their specific aims and strategic aims. They would also expect Oxfam to open many stores across the nation to help provide jobs and aid for suffering people, also to provide customers/local people with jobs and by opening more stores this could help raise the amount that Oxfam donate to suffering people. Customers that influence the charity would like to see more posts for voluntary work which could help them reach their objectives and aims in the specific time. Tesco suppliers the suppliers of Tesco would benefit from their strategic aims and objectives because Tesco are always looking to expand. This would mean more demand for products from their suppliers, also meaning that more stores are open and more jobs made for people. This indicates more revenue made, and more cash spent on suppliers for products. The supplies would be needed throughout the world and would need to be reliable because Tesco would rely on their supplies heavily. Tesco would rely on their suppliers to deliver goods and products to all their stores nationally and internationally, so suppliers would be needed around the world, in order to cope with the demand of products that Tesco require. The strategic aims and objectives would give the suppliers of Tesco a good contact

Cerebellar Lesions :: Neurology Health Medical Essays

Cerebellar Lesions According to an article by Rhawn Joseph, Ph.D., each of the deep cerebellar nuclei maintains a semi-independent map of the human body (2000). The cerebellum is tonically active, and is presumed to exert a stabilizing influence on motor function; accordingly, it is functionally responsible for coordination and smooth fine tuning of movement, in addition to influencing timing. Not only is the cerebellum associated with motor functioning, but, importantly, also with classical conditioning: e.g., the learning of new motor programs (Joseph, 2000). It is associated with the acquisition if finely skilled movements, such as playing an instrument, playing a sport, and performance dance. Interestingly, as motor information is acquired, it takes time for the cerebellum to acquire control over the specific task. With the notion of â€Å"practice makes perfect,† task control shifts from conscious cortical control (active, practicing memory) to the subconscious realm and control of the cerebellum. Hence, the cerebellum plays an integrated and important part in complex learning and memory (Joseph, 2000.) During early learning stages, cerebellar climbing fibers are activated, and mossy fibers seem to modulate and to monitor ongoing and related activity in the learning context. Lesions occurring in the cerebellum have the unfortunate effect of abolishing conditioned response acquisition and retention. Such lesions and/or diseases cause motor incoordination called ataxia, with symptoms of tremors, instability and teetering, and an inability to maintain regular movement of tempo (nanonline.org). There are three known major cerebellar syndromes. The vestibulocerebellar cortex controls movement of the eyes and body relating to gravity and turning of the head in space; damage to this area results in ataxia gait and stance, as described above. The spinocerebellar system, which receives information via rapid spinocerebellar pathways during the duration of movement, modulates and smoothes that movement. Lesions occurring in the spinocerebellar system are a result of chronic alcoholism and thiamine deficiency (nanonline.org, Joseph, 2000), and results in difficulty producing rapid and smooth movements. There occurs a prominent shuffle, wide gait, and hesitating steps, with ataxia, tremor and difficulty in lower limb coordination. Lastly, lesions of the cerebrocerebellum (neocerebellum) have blatant effects on well- learned volitional movements, as it has direct pathways with cerebral cortex motor control regions. Several symptoms exist to suggest cerebellar lesions. Joseph (2000) reports a study by Gordon Holmes (1971, 1939) that investigated cerebellar disturbances following gunshot wounds. Deficits involved voluntary/skilled motor function, gait ataxia, dysarthria (loss of proprioceptive input), asynergia (loss of

Ironclads Of The Civil War :: essays research papers

IRONCLADS OF THE CIVIL WAR   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book I read is called IRONCLADS OF THE CIVIL WAR. When you think of the Civil War you think of on land battles, but there were also many battles in the water. The Civil War introduced the Ironclads, which are huge ships made of iron with no sails and very destructive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first built and launched ironclad was in 1855 and it was named the Merrimac. Europe just starting building ironclads and sent her to Norfolk. The Merrimac was still there when Virginia seceded from the Union in April of 1861. The Union then sank the Merrimac and set her afire but the hull of the shop and the engines settled in the bottom of the river. The Confederates found it and raised the parts out. It took 1,500 men to work on the Merrimac. It was a very slow process because there was not many supplies or tools. The Merrimac needed needed on thousand tons of iron. It was difficult to get some because there was very few iron manufacturers anywhere in the South and there was just one able to supply enough. The Merrimac got a small share of iron and then went to work. It took over a year to get this ship finished. The captain was Franklin Buchnan and he had 300 men for a crew.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most of the men were soldiers recently assigned out of artillery regiments. And there were very few sailors in the South, so most were clueless on where to go or what to do. When everything was done and she began to move it looked like the Merrimac was capable of doing what she was meant to do. The Northerners were warned about this ironclad â€Å"monster† and were waiting for this moment a long time. When the Merrimac came into view she fought the Cumberland and ended up destroying it. The shell burst into the rail and knocked down nine men of the Cumberland. In the end the Merrimac destroyed the Cumberland. But no ship in the navy ever fought as hard or as brave as the Cumberland did.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once the word got around about the ironclad everyone started to make them. France built the Gloire and England built the Warrior. By the Civil War was a year old the navies were being complemented with ironclad. And the Union knew that they had to have an ironclad to ever beat the South Merrimac Captain John Ericisson

Attention Defecit Disorder Essay -- ADD Behavior Disorders Essays

Attention Defecit Disorder Attention deficit disorder, also called ADD, is defined as 'a disorder primarily a characteristic of childhood, marked by a consistent problem in paying attention,' in the book, The Lifespan by Guy R. Lefrancois (1999). It is more common among boys than girls but can effect all ages. Focusing on children between the ages of five thru ten, it is estimated that three to five percent, which is 1.35 - 2.25 million, of all children are living with ADD. When accompanied by serious hyperactivity, ADD is labeled as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. This disorder makes it very challenging for educators to deal with. Understanding the characteristics of this disorder, how to treat the disorder thru medicine, and how to teach a child with this disorder, will make it better for children and educators inside and out of the classroom. In the article, Teaching Children with Attention Deficit Disorder, it is said that there are two kinds of ADD; regular ADD and ADHD. To have ADHD, a student must portray at least eight of the symptoms from the following list: 1.) fidget, squirm, or seem restless 2.) difficulty remaining in a seated position 3.) easily distracted 4.) difficulty taking turns 5.) blurts out answers 6.) difficulty following instructions 7.) difficulty sustaing attention 8.) does not complete assignments 9.) difficulty playing quietly 10.) talk excessively 11.) interrupts or intrudes on others 12.) does not listen 13.) loses possessions 14.) frequently engage in dangerous actions. It also says that having ADD means that you have a short attention span, impulse control problems, and extreme hyperactivity. The disease begins in infancy and does not end until adulthood. It ha... ... do not know how to teach students with the disorder, then you are failing your duty as an instructor. The only way to help these children is to learn about them first. By doing this, a healthier learning environment is created for you, the students, and the school. References I. Franciois, G. (1999). The Lifespan. Belmont CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. II. (1989). Teaching Children with Attention Deficit Disorder. Eric Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 3, 2005. Cook Library database. III. (1992). Providing an Appropriate Education to Children with Attention Deficit Disorder. Eric Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 3, 2005. Cook Library database. IV. Blair, C. (2003). Self Regulation and School-Readiness. Eric Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 3, 2005. Cook Library database. V. Theresa Davis- Relay Elementary School- Baltimore County Public School

Leadership: Bases of Power Essay

Who would want to work for a weak manager? Managers need power to do their jobs, because their jobs require them to influence others. Consequently, managers who feel powerless to influence others experience a tremendous amount of frustration and stress. Their staff members tend to feel frustrated too. Power means many different things to different people. For some, power is seen as corrupt. For others, the more power they have, the more successful they feel. For even others, power is of no interest at all. Positions of authority confer power to the people who hold managerial positions. However, managers who rely solely on their formal authority to influence others will find that it doesn’t inspire their staff, and can even demoralize them. Hence, it helps to also derive power from other sources. Charisma and having personal appeal are sources of power too. Power can also be developed by becoming and expert or by performing critical role for the firm. Bases of Social Power Bases of power refer to the methods that managers and leaders utilize to influence their employees. When examining bases of power, the concept of authority must also be considered. These two are interconnected attributes tied to the behavior of superiors over subordinates. In their article, â€Å"Are There No Limits To Authority?†, David Knights and Darren McCabe explain that â€Å"power should be understood to be a condition of social relations. Thus, it is erroneous to ask who has power. Instead, it is necessary to explore how power is exercised.† In turn, the nature of how power is exercised is a workable definition for authority. In short, authority and power are intertwined, with power being the ability to do things or have others do what one has ordered while authority is the foundation on which that power is built. The bases of social power are very diverse, and no list is ever complete. Nonetheless, the commonly identified bases of power fit pretty well into two categories; position-related factors and personal factors. Position-related factors. Position power comes from the legitimacy inherent in many positions, the ability to provide rewards, the ability to coerce, access to valuable information and performing a critical function. These position-related factors are: Legitimate power allows leaders to motivate others simply because they hold the leadership position. Sometimes we comply with the wishes of a leader just because of the societal expectations for us to do so. For instance, if Colin Powell shows up at your club’s luncheon and wants to say a few words, you let him. Why do you give him that privilege? Stupid question. He’s the Secretary of State! You just do that sort of thing for someone in his position. That’s legitimate power. That kind of legitimacy isn’t always very strong for managers who are promoted to a position in which they must supervise their former peers. If the former peers have any difficulty adjusting to their managers’ new positions, legitimacy will be kind of weak. Legitimate power comes from having a position of power in an organization, such as being the boss or a key member of a leadership team. This power comes when employees in the organization recognize the authority of the individual. For example, the CEO who determines the overall direction of the company and the resource needs of the company. Legitimate power rests in the belief among employees that their manager has the right to give orders based on his or her position. For example, at the scene of a crime, people usually comply with the orders of a uniformed police officer based simply on their shared belief that he or she has the predetermined authority to give such orders. In a corporate setting, employees comply with the orders of a manager who relies on legitimate power based on the position in the organizational hierarchy that the manager holds. Yet, although employees may comply based on legitimate power, they may not feel a sense of commitment or cooperation. Reward power is the ability to provide incentives to others if they will cooperate with you. Managers who can affect their direct reports’ income, perks, job assignments, etc. are able to offer rewards in exchange for compliance. Having a high degree of reward power really helps a manager influence others. Reward power is conveyed through rewarding individuals for compliance with one’s wishes. This may be done through given bonuses, raises, a promotion, extra time off from work, etc. For example, the supervisor who provides employees comp time when they meet an objective she sets for a project. Reward power, as the name implies, rests on the ability of a manager to give some sort of reward to employees. These rewards can range from monetary compensation to improved work schedules. Reward power often does not need monetary or other tangible compensation to work when managers can convey various intangible benefits as rewards. Huey describes Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., as an active user of reward power. Walton relies heavily on these intangible awards, indicating that â€Å"nothing else can quite substitute for a few well-chosen, well-timed, sincere words of praise. They are absolutely free-and worth a fortune†. When reward power is used in a flexible manner, it can prove to be a strong motivator, as Crosby, Deming, and others have shown. Still, when organizations rely too rigidly on rewards, the system can backfire. Employees may be tempted to unethically or even illegally meet the quotas to which overly rigid reward systems may be tied. Another problem associated with rewards as a base for power is the possibility that the rewards will divert employees’ attention from their jobs and focus their attention instead on the rewards da ngled before them. Coercive power is the ability to punish or intimidate. It’s often said that unions eliminate management’s ability to sanction uncooperative employees. That may be a bit of an exaggeration, but when collective bargaining agreements state that management can only terminate employees with cause, management does have restricted ability to coerce cooperation. Managers should use coercion with great care anyway. Coercion only motivates minimal cooperation and breeds resentment. Coercive power is conveyed through fear of losing one’s job, being demoted, receiving a poor performance review, having prime projects taken away, etc. This power is gotten through threatening others. For example, the VP of Sales who threatens sales folks to meet their goals or get replaced. Coercive power rests in the ability of a manager to force an employee to comply with an order through the threat of punishment. Coercive power typically leads to short-term compliance, but in the long-run produces dysfunctional behavior. Coercion reduces employees’ satisfaction with their jobs, leading to lack of commitment and general employee withdrawal. In the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, coercive power has seen a decline in the last 50 years. Several reasons contribute to this, ranging from the legal erosion of employment-at-will and the awareness of employee violence or other forms of retaliatory behavior. Equally important as an effect on the receding popularity of coercion as a basis of power has been the influence of quality management theorists, such as Philip Crosby and W. Edwards Deming. They suggested that there is a decline in productivity and creativity when coercive power is employed. The use of coercive power results in an atmosphere of insecurity or fear. In spite of this insight, coercion as a base of power continues to play a role even in those organizations influenced by theories of quality management. In times of economic crisis or threats to the survival of the organization at large, coercion may come to the forefront. Coercive power may also materialize as organizations attempt to streamline their operations for maximum efficiency. If employees must be fired, those who fail to conform to the organizational goals for survival will be the most likely candidates for termination. The threat of termination for failure to comply, in turn, is coercive power. Access to valuable information produces power because valuable information is a resource that can be exchanged. Back in the days when managers had secretaries do all their typing and schedule their meetings, some secretaries had access to a lot of important information. Consequently, people who were nice to secretaries were able to get information and access to key personnel that jerks couldn’t get. Even without having formal authority, the secretaries did have power, and shrewd business people treated secretaries with respect. Performing a critical function confers power, but only to the extent that the individual or group performing the function is irreplaceable. One of my favorite examples of criticality and irreplaceability as they pertain to power comes from NBC’s television show, West Wing. At the end of the first season, the producers were expecting to have to renegotiate a lot of the actors’ contracts. The producers wanted to bring the whole cast back because audiences don’t react well to new actors playing established roles or to roles that are clumsily dropped from the story. Thus, each actor was critical and irreplaceable. Of course, producers don’t have to replace an actor whose character died. So, the writers arranged to have the West Wing season finale end with a gunshot that could have killed any of the critical actors. It wasn’t until the second season that we found out who got hit. By making the actors less critical, the producers reduced the actors’ negotiating power. Personal factors. A number of personal qualities can also contribute to a person’s power in an organization. Some of these are: Expertise that can be used in exchange for favors is a form of power. For instance, if you’re an expert with PowerPoint you can help colleagues put together their presentations, and you can get favors from them in return. Expert power comes from ones’ experiences, skills or knowledge. As we gain experience in particular areas, and become thought leaders in those areas, we begin to gather expert power that can be utilized to get others to help us meet our goals. For example, the Project Manager who is an expert at solving particularly challenging problems to ensure a project stays on track. Expert power rests on the belief of employees that an individual has a particularly high level of knowledge or highly specialized skill set. Managers may be accorded authority based on the perception of their greater knowledge of the tasks at hand than their employees. Interestingly, in expert power, the superior may not rank higher than the other persons in a formal sense. Thus, when an equipment repair person comes to the CEO’s office to fix a malfunctioning piece of machinery, no question exists that the CEO outranks the repair person; yet regarding the specific task of getting the machine operational, the CEO is likely to follow the orders of the repair person. Expert power has within it a built-in point of weakness: as a point of power, expertise diminishes as knowledge is shared. If a manager shares knowledge or skill instruction with his or her employees, in time they will acquire a similar knowledge base or skill set. As the employees grow to equal the manager’s knowledge or skills, their respect for the superiority of his expertise diminishes. The result is either that the manager’s authority diminishes or that the manager intentionally chooses not to share his or her knowledge base or skill set with the employees. The former choice weakens the manager’s authority over time, while the latter weakens the organization’s effectiveness over time. Likeability, or any kind of personal attractiveness, also gives you power. If people like to be around you because you’re witty, friendly, famous or good looking, you’re also likely to be pretty persuasive. We all want to do favors for people we like, up to a limit anyway. Charisma has multiple meanings. A person with charisma has a special interpersonal appeal. Charisma can be viewed as a particularly strong form of likeability or attractiveness. That’s the kind of charisma that Princess Diana had. Charismatic leaders, on the other hand, communicate a vision that’s very appealing and they energize others to pursue it with them. If you want to be a charismatic leader, (a) you have to have an ambitious vision for the group you’re leading, (b) you have to be excited about it, (c) you have to be confident in the group’s ability to achieve that vision, and (d) you have to be able to communicate your vision, excitement, and confidence. That’s the kind of charisma that Winston Churchill had. Persuasive ability, which is clearly associated with the ability to influence others, is another personal source of power. Intellectual problem solving abilities (e.g., rational problem solving ability, creative problem solving ability, inductive reasoning ability) help people influence others. So do interpersonal persuasion skills. On the list of influence tactics, â€Å"reason† is generally considered the best way to influence others. It’s ranked above â€Å"reciprocity,† which draws on reward power (e.g., a bonus in exchange for exceptional performance), and â€Å"retribution† which uses threats and intimidation. To the extent that reason is a great way to influence others, possessing the ability to reason with others is a great power base. Credibility is an important personal base of power. We are more likely to be persuaded by and follow someone with high credibility than we are someone with low or no credibility. Credibility comes from integrity, character, competence, and the ability to lead. Integrity means being open and sharing information that people need and have a right to know. Hidden agendas undermine integrity. So does the unwillingness to provide truthful, well-intentioned, constructive criticism. Honesty also has to be tempered with discretion. Managers need to show discretion and not say negative things about people as gossip or with the intent to hurt, even if those negative things are true. Remember the lesson from the movie, Jerry Maguire, â€Å"brutal truth† can be a bad thing. Character is the strength to do what needs to be done in difficult times. A basketball team has character if it tends to play well at the end of close games. A businessperson demonstrates character by acting in a moral and ethical way despite pressures or self-interests that push them to do otherwise. Competence is one’s knowledge and skills that pertain to a given situation. When someone tries to reason with you and gain your support for a certain course of action, their competence in that area affects their persuasiveness. If they don’t know what they’re talking about, you’re not going to be influenced. Competence contributes to credibility, and credibility allows one person to influence another. Finally, the ability to lead contributes to managers’ credibility. Would you enthusiastically follow a leader who is unable to inspire others, manage conflict, delegate tasks or coordinate activities? No matter how much you respect a leader for her task-related knowledge, integrity and character, you’ll have reservations about working hard for her if she doesn’t demonstrate the ability to lead. In Summary †¦ Managers must have power, and they would do well to develop more than just the ability to reward and punish others. Having resources and information that can be exchanged for cooperation is also helpful. Having personal qualities that inspire confidence and a willingness to follow might be even more useful. Nevertheless, all are sources of power. References: Victor, D. (n.d.). Leadership Styles and Bases of Power. Retrieved February 25,2013, from: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Int-Loc/Leadership-Styles-and-Bases-of-Power.html#ixzz2Lt2Q7QbI Abudi, G. (2011). The 5 Types of Power in Leadership. Retrieved February,from: http://quickbase.intuit.com/blog/2011/08/26/the-5-types-of-power-in-leadership/ Wiliams, S. (2004). Building Your Power Bases. Retrieved February 25, 2013, from: http://www.wright.edu/~scott.williams/LeaderLetter/power.htm

Plan on Sexual Selection Essay

In evolutionary terms natural selection is the process by which certain characteristics and behaviours get passed on in the gene pool because they give the individual a better chance of surviving and reproducing. Sexual selection is the process within natural selection where by any characteristic or behaviour that increases the reproductive success of an individual are selected and these characteristics may get exaggerated over evolutionary time. Because of the differences in parental investment between males and females, evolutionary psychologists suggest this has created gender specific reproductive behaviour – that is in terms of mating preferences and strategies, and in terms of mating systems (to remain monogamous or is promiscuity best? ) Because females have to invest a lot of time in having and bringing up offspring, and because the number of offspring they can have in a life time is limited, Darwin suggests this has lead to females being choosy about who they â€Å"mate† and settle down with. Females will be looking for good genetic qualities in a male and qualities that indicate that he could provide for her and their offspring. This in turn has created competition between males. They have to convince females they would be the best to mate with. Males will also be concerned with looking for females with qualities that suggest fertility (youth and good health – synonymous with physical attractiveness. Sexual selection may also lead to differences in mating systems. A female may be best in a monogamous relationship which will ensure the male stays and provides for the family. However for a male a polygamy may be better where he mates with as many females as possible thus ensuring quantity in offspring increasing the likelihood of some of them surviving. Cross cultural studies provide good evidence for evolutionary theory because if we see the same behaviour across culture we can deduce that this behaviour may be a result of genes (evolution) rather than socialisation. Buss, 1989 studied 37 cultures and found that females valued qualities that suggested the financial potential of males – for example ambition and industriousness. On the other hand men valued physical attractiveness and women who were younger than them more than women did. This suggests that they were looking for qualities associated with fertility in line with evolutionary predictions. This was a large scale study with over 10,000 participants which gives it credibility, however it is possible that participants gave the socially desirable answer in terms of what they were looking for in a partner. Other studies have supported Buss. For example Waynforth and Dunbar (1995) analysed the content of lonely hearts columns and found that 43% of males sought a youthful mate compared to 25% of females (the younger the female the more fertile). They also found that 44% of males sought a physically attractive partner compared to 22% of females. Finally they found that women â€Å"advertise† their physical attractiveness and men advertise their resources. The advantage of this study is that the people writing the adverts would not have been influenced by any investigator effects, however this is a biased sample as only a small proportion of the populations would seek to find partners in this way. There is much evidence to suggest that males are more likely to engage in casual sex and engage in polygamous relationships (thus spreading their genes around). For example Clark and Hatfield (1989 and 1990) found that when propositioned by a total stranger 50% of both men and women agreed to go out on a date with the stranger, however none of the females agreed to have sex with a stranger whereas a staggering 75% of males agreed. The study was carried out on a university campus and the participants were students so are hardly representative of the general population. The ethics of this study were also questionable as it involved deception and lack of informed consent and could also have affected the psychological well being of the participants in terms of later guilty feelings. Comparative studies of testicle size in primates by Baker and Bellis, 1995, also suggest that humans may have evolved under a polygamous mating system. Males have medium sized testicles relative to body size compared to chimpanzees. Chimps live in a promiscuous mating system thus females mate with many males so the male chimp has to have large testes to produce lots of sperm in order to compete. Gorillas are monogamous and have relatively small testes. The medium sized human testes suggest that the norm for our human ancestors was to be mildly competitive so females may have had multiple partners. It could be argued that a woman’s best strategy may be to be mildly promiscuous and mate with the man with the best genes but remain with the man who can care and provide. This is supported by Baker and Bellis, 1995, who suggested the world wide rate for misattributed fatherhood was 9%. Although the studies above lend support to evolutionary theory we must be careful in assuming that human mate choice is just a product of our evolutionary past. Our choices will also be affected by our upbringing , religion and our culture and these may change from generation to generation. Some of the findings of studies can also be explained in terms of culture and society. For example in the past women have had to rely on men to provide for them given the inequality in earning power etc. In today’s modern times we may see changes in what women are looking for in a mate. Bereczkei et al (1997) found that females now advertised for men who are family-orientated suggesting they are less concerned about resources. In this way evolutionary theory can be accused of being reductionist in trying to explain reproductive behaviour in terms of gene survival and ignoring social, cultural and moral influences on our reproductive behaviour. Evolutionary theory is also highly deterministic, which is dangerous as we forget that humans have the ability to think about their actions. Biologist Richard Dawkins believes we can override biology with freewill. For example evolutionary theory predicted that men who cannot attract a mate would resort to rape. While this does happen, the majority of single men would not entertain this idea. Finally much of the evidence for evolutionary theory is based on presumed knowledge about past human environments leading to speculations about which behaviours may have been adaptive. As such evolutionary theory is very difficult to test experimentally.